TIMSS 2011 Science Framework

TIMSS 2011 Science Framework

Overview

In today’s world, some understanding of science is imperative if citizens are to make informed decisions about themselves and the world in which they live. Every day they are faced with a barrage of information, and sifting fact from fiction is possible only if they have the tools to accomplish this. It is important, therefore, to make certain that students leaving high school are equipped with a fundamental understanding of science such that the decisions they make are informed decisions. Students in the early grades have a natural curiosity about the world and their place in it, thus it is appropriate for them to start to learn the basics of science at a young age. This knowledge and understanding should be built upon throughout their schooling so that when as adults they are faced with making decisions that relate to such diverse issues as the treatment of diseases, global warming, and applications of technology, they are able to do so from a sound scientific basis.The science assessment framework for TIMSS 2011 consists of a content dimension specifying the subject matter domains to be assessed within science (for example, biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science at the eighth grade) and a cognitive dimension specifying the cognitive domains or skills and behaviors (that is, knowing, applying, and reasoning) expected of students as they engage with the science content. The content domains differ for the fourth and eighth grades, reflecting the nature and difficulty of the science taught at each grade. There is more emphasis at the fourth grade on life science than on its counterpart, biology, at the eighth grade. At the eighth grade, physics and chemistry are assessed as separate content domains, and receive more emphasis than at fourth grade, where they are assessed as one content domain, physical science. The cognitive framework, however, is the same for both grades, encompassing a range of cognitive processes involved in learning science concepts and engaging in scientific inquiry right through the primary and middle school years. Exhibit 6 shows the target percentages of testing time devoted to each science content and cognitive domain for the fourth- and eighth-grade assessments.

在當今世界，一些對科學的理解是必要的，如果公民作出明智的決策對自己和他們在其中生活的世界。他們每天都面臨著接二連三的信息，並篩選虛構的事實是，只有當他們有工具來做到這一點。因此，重要的是使某些離開高中的學生都配備有基本的了解與科學等，他們做出的決定是明智的決定。在低年級的學生有一個關於世界和他們的地方在它的自然的好奇心，因此它是適當的，他們在年輕的時候開始學習科學的基本知識。這方面的知識和理解應該建立在整個學業後，因此，當作為成年人，他們面臨的決策，涉及到治療的疾病，全球變暖和技術應用等多樣化的問題，他們能夠從健全科學 basis.The TIMSS 2011科學評估框架由指定題材領域，在科學評估（例如，生物學，化學，物理學，地球科學在八年級）內容維度和認知維度指定預計學生的認知領域或技能和行為（即知道，應用和推理），因為他們從事的科學內容。不同的四年級和八年級的內容領域，反映在每個年級教科學的性質和難度。有更多比它的對手，在八年級生物生命科學四年級的重視。在八年級，物理和化學評估作為單獨的內容域，並得到更多的重視比四年級，他們在那裡作為一個內容域，物理科學評估。然而，認知框架，是兩個職系相同，包括學習科學概念，並在從事科學探究的權利，通過中小學年所涉及的認知過程的範圍。圖表 6顯示測試時間專門為第四和第八級評估每一個科學的內容和認知領域的目標百分比。

exhibit 6: Target Percentages of the TIMSS 2011 Science assessment Devoted to Content and Cognitive Domains at Fourth and eighth Grades

Fourth Grade

Content Domains	Percentages
Life Science	45%
Physical Science	35%
Earth Science	20%

Eighth Grade

Content Domains	Percentages
Biology	35%
Chemistry	20%
Physics	25%
Earth Science	20%
Cognitive Domains	Percentages
	Fourth Grade	Eighth Grade
Knowing	40%	35%
Applying	40%	35%
Reasoning	20%	30%

One of the ways in which students have been encouraged to build upon their knowledge and understanding of science is through the process of scientific inquiry and considerable emphasis has been placed in the contemporary science curricula of many countries on engaging students in this process. Recognizing the importance of scientific inquiry in the teaching and learning process, the TIMSS 2011 Science Framework takes the position that the understandings and abilities required to engage in this process should not be assessed in isolation. Rather, scientific inquiry should be assessed in the context of one or other of the TIMSS science content domains and drawing upon the full range of skills and behaviors specified in the cognitive domains. Accordingly, assessment items addressing aspects of scientific inquiry are included within the two dimensions of the assessment framework—the content dimension that covers all the fields of science and the cognitive dimension that includes skillsbased components.

受到鼓舞，使學生建立他們的知識和對科學的理解的方式之一是通過科學探究的過程中，並放置在當代許多國家的科學課程，讓學生在這個過程中一直相當重視。認識到在教學過程中的科學探究的重要性，2011年的TIMSS科學框架採取的立場的理解和參與這一進程所需的能力不應該孤立地評估。相反，科學探究應該在一個或其他TIMSS科學的內容後，在指定的認知領域的技能和行為的全方位域和繪圖方面進行評估。因此，解決科學探究方面的評估項目包括在評估框架的內容範圍涵蓋所有領域的科學和認知層面，包括skillsbased組件兩個維度。

The content and cognitive domains for the science assessment as well as the TIMSS perspective on scientific inquiry are discussed in detail in the following sections. The content domains for the fourth grade are presented first, followed by those for the eighth grade. The cognitive domains, applicable to both grades, are next, followed by scientific inquiry.

以下各節中詳細討論了科學評估，以及TIMSS的角度對科學探究的內容和認知領域。第一，八年級的四年級的內容領域提出。認知領域，適用於這兩種牌號，旁邊的，其次是科學探究。

Science Content Domains –

Fourth Grade

While TIMSS recognizes that the organization of science curricula differs across countries, for the purposes of the TIMSS 2011 assessment at the fourth grade, three major domains covering most of the topics in the various countries’ curricula were chosen to define the science content—life science, physical science, and earth science. It should be noted that the topics included in these content domains may be taught in some countries in other subject areas, such as geography.

The content domains are shown in Exhibit 7 together with the target percentage devoted to each domain.

科學的內容域 -
小學四年級
雖然 TIMSS認識到，科學課程的組織，不同國家之間的TIMSS2011年在第四級評估的目的，選擇了三個主要領域，包括各國課程的大部分主題來定義科學的內容，生命科學物理科學和地球科學。應該指出，這些內容域包括主題可能會在某些國家在其他學科領域，如地理，教授。

exhibit 7: Target Percentages of the TIMSS 2011 Science assessment

Devoted to Content Domains at Fourth Grade

專門到各個領域的目標百分比圖表 7所示的內容域。

Fourth-Grad Content Domains	Percentages
Life Science	45%
Physical Science	35%
Earth Science	20%

Each content domain has several main topic areas, presented as a list of objectives covered in the science curriculum in the majority of participating countries. The sections below describe each science content domain, give an overview of the topic areas to be covered in each domain, and provide a set of assessment objectives for each topic area. These objectives are written in terms of behaviors to be elicited by items that exemplify the understandings and abilities expected of students at fourth grade.

每個內容領域有幾個主要的主題領域，大多數與會國家在科學課程涵蓋的目標清單提出的。以下各節描述了每一個科學的內容域，在每個域所涵蓋的主題領域概述，並提供了一套考核目標，每個主題區。這些目標是書面的行為，預計在四年級學生的理解和能力的項目，體現引起。

Life Science

Life science includes understandings of the characteristics and life processes of living things, the relationships between them, and their interaction with the environment. The topic areas for life science are as follows:

•Characteristics and life processes of living things

•Life cycles, reproduction, and heredity

•Interaction with the environment

•Ecosystems

•Human health

生命科學，包括生活的東西，它們之間的關係，及其與環境的相互作用的特點和生命過程的理解。為生命科學的主題領域如下：
•特點和萬物的生命過程
•生命週期，繁殖和遺傳
•與環境的相互作用
•生態系統
•人類健康

Knowledge of the characteristics and life processes of living things is fundamental to the study of life science. As such, students at fourth grade are expected to be able to describe differences between living and nonliving things, compare and contrast physical and behavioral characteristics of major groups of organisms, and relate structures of such organisms to their function.Students are expected to know and be able to compare the life cycles of plants, such as a tree and a bean, and animals, such as a housefly and a frog. In the areas of reproduction and heredity, knowledge is restricted to a very basic understanding that organisms of the same kind reproduce and that offspring closely resemble their parents. They should also be able to relate the production of multiple seeds or eggs to survival of different kinds of plants and animals. Students are expected to be able to associate physical features and patterns of behavior of plants and animals with the environment in which they live and to provide examples of physical and behavioral characteristics that make some plants and animals better suited to particular environments. Students also should be able to demonstrate a rudimentary knowledge of bodily responses to outside conditions.

萬物的特點和生命過程的知識，是研究生命科學的基礎。因此，預計在四年級的學生能夠來形容的生活和無生命的東西之間的差異，比較和對比生物體的主要群體的生理和行為特徵，並與他們 function.Students這類生物體的結構了解和植物，如樹和一個 bean，和動物，如蒼蠅和一隻青蛙，能夠比較的生命週期。在繁殖和遺傳方面的限制，知識是一個很基本的了解同類生物的繁殖和後代酷似他們的父母。他們也應該能夠與多個種子或蛋生產不同種類的植物和動物的生存的。預計學生能夠聯想到的物理特性和的環境，他們在其中生活和提供更適合特定環境中一些植物和動物的身體和行為特點，使的例子的植物和動物的行為模式。學生也應該能夠證明的身體反應的基本知識，外部條件。

The study of ecosystems is essential to understanding the interdependence of living organisms and their relationship to the physical environment. Basic concepts related to ecosystems, including energy flow and the interaction of biotic and abiotic factors, are expected to be introduced in the primary school science curriculum. Students’ understandings may be demonstrated through descriptions of specific relationships between plants and animals in common ecosystems. Some understanding of the ways in which human behavior can affect the environment also is expected of fourth-grade students, especially in relation to pollution.Finally, fourth-grade students are expected to have a rudimentary knowledge of human health, nutrition, and disease. They should demonstrate familiarity with common communicable diseases and also be able to relate diet and personal habits to their effect on health.

生態系統的研究是必不可少的了解生物體和物理環境的關係是相互依存的。基本概念相關的生態系統，包括能量流動和生物和非生物因素的相互作用，預計將在小學科學課程推出。學生的理解可能會證明，通過共同的生態系統的植物和動物之間的具體關係的描述。在人類的行為也可以影響環境的方式有些了解，預計四年級的學生，特別是在關係到pollution.Finally，四年級的學生，預計有一個人類的健康，營養，和疾病的基本知識。他們應該表現出熟悉常見傳染病，也可以與健康的飲食和個人的生活習慣，他們的效果。

Life Science: Characteristics and Life Processes of Living Things

1. Describe differences between living and nonliving things; identify common characteristics of living things (e.g., reproduction, growth, basic needs for air, food, water).

2.Compare and contrast physical and behavioralcharacteristics of major groups of living things (e.g., insects, birds, mammals, flowering plants); identify or provide examples of animals and plants belonging to these groups.

3. Relate major structures in animals to their functions (e.g., stomach – digests food, teeth – break down food, bones - support the body, lungs - take in air).

4. Relate major structures in plants to their functions (e.g., roots - absorb water, leaves - make food)

生命科學的特點和萬物的生命過程
1。描述生活和無生命的東西之間的差異;識別萬物的共同特點（例如，繁殖，生長，對空氣的基本需求，食品，水）。

2.Compare和對比度的身體和生活的事情（例如，昆蟲，鳥類，哺乳類，開花植物）的主要群體 behavioralcharacteristics;識別或屬於這些群體的動物和植物提供的例子。

3。相關動物及其功能的主要結構（例如，胃 -消化食物，牙齒 - 分解食物，骨頭 - 支撐身體，肺 - 在空氣）。

4。相關植物，其職能主要結構（例如，根 - 吸收水分，葉片 - 使食物）

Life Science: Life Cycles, Reproduction, and Heredity

1. Trace the general steps in the life cycle of plants (germination, growth and development, reproduction, seed dispersal) and animals (birth, growth and

development, reproduction, death); recognize and compare life cycles of familiar plants (e.g., trees, beans) and animals (e.g., humans, houseflies, frogs).

2. Recognize that plants and animals reproduce with their own kind to produce offspring with features that closely resemble those of the parents; describe simple relationships between reproduction and survival of different kinds of

plants and animals (e.g., a plant producing many seeds, a fish producing many eggs).

Life Science: Interactions with the Environment

1. Associate physical features of plants and animals with the environments in which they live; identify or describe examples of certain physical or behavioral characteristics of plants and animals that help them survive in particular environments and explain why (e.g., type of root, type of leaf, fur thickness, hibernation, migration).

2. Describe bodily responses in animals to outside conditions (e.g., heat, cold, danger) and to activities (e.g., exercise).

生命科學：生命週期，複製，與遺傳
1。微量元素在植物（萌發，生長和發育，繁殖，種子傳播）和動物的生命週期的一般步驟（出生，成長和發育，繁殖，死亡）;識別和比較熟悉的植物的生命週期（如樹木，豆類）和動物（如人類，蒼蠅，青蛙）。
2。認識到植物和動物的繁殖與自己的同類生產功能，酷似父母的後代;描述不同種類的繁殖和生存之間的簡單關係植物和動物（例如，一個工廠生產的許多種子生產許多蛋，魚）。

生命科學與環境的相互作用
1。副教授與他們生活的環境中，植物和動物的物理特性;識別或描述植物和動物的特點，幫助他們在特定環境中生存，並解釋某些生理或行為的例子，為什麼（例如，鍵入根，葉型，皮毛厚度，休眠，遷移）。
2。說明在對外界條件的動物的身體反應（例如，耐熱，耐寒，危險）和活動（如運動）。

Life Science: Ecosystems

1. Explain that plants need the Sun to make their food, while animals eat plants or other animals; recognize that all plants and animals need food to provide energy for activity and raw material for growth and repair.

2. Describe relationships in a given community (e.g., forest, tide pool, desert) based on simple food chains, using common plants and animals and predator-prey

relationships.

3. Explain ways in which human behavior can have positive or negative effects on the environment; provide general descriptions and examples of the effects of pollution on humans, plants, animals, and their environments, and of ways of preventing or reducing pollution.

Life Science: Human Health

1. Recognize ways that common communicable diseases (e.g., colds, influenza) are transmitted; identify signs of health or illness and some methods of preventing and treating illness.

2. Describe ways of staying healthy including eating a balanced diet and regular exercise; identify common food sources (e.g., fruits, vegetables, grains).

生命科學：生態系統

1、解釋，植物需要陽光，使他們的食物，而動物吃植物或其他動物;認識到，所有的植物和動物需要食物提供​​生長和修復活動和原料的能源。

2、描述在給定的社會關係（如森林，沙漠，潮池）基於簡單的食物鏈，使用常見的植物和動物的捕食者 - 獵物關係。

3。解釋人類行為對環境產生積極或消極影響的方式，提供對人類，植物，動物，和其環境的污染影響的一般說明和例子，並防止或減少污染的方法。

生命科學：人類健康

1、認識常見的傳染病（如感冒，流感）傳播方式;確定健康或疾病的跡象和一些預防和治療疾病的方法。

2、描述包括飲食均衡飲食和經常運動保持健康的方法，確定共同的食物來源（如水果，蔬菜，穀物）。

Physical Science

Physical science includes concepts related to matter and energy, and covers topics in the areas of both chemistry and physics. Since students in fourth grade have only a beginning knowledge of chemistry, the framework places more emphasis on physics concepts.

The topic areas for physical science are listed below:

•Classification and properties of matter

•Sources and effects of energy

•Forces and motion

In the area of classification and properties of matter, fourth-grade students are expected to have a beginning understanding of physical states and changes in matter from one form to another—solid, liquid, and gas. While general knowledge about changes of state is not expected, students should know that water can exist in all three forms and can change from one form to another by being heated or cooled.

They should be able to compare or classify objects and materials on the basis of physical properties and relate these properties to their uses. Students are expected to have a beginning practical knowledge of the formation of mixtures and water solutions. They also are expected to identify some changes in familiar materials that produce other materials with different properties, but are not expected to know how these changes are related to chemical transformations.Concepts related to sources and effects of energy encompassheat, temperature, light, electricity, and magnetism. Students should be able to identify common energy sources and have some understanding of hot objects being able to heat up cold objects. Their understanding of light will be assessed through identifying common light sources and relating familiar physical phenomena to the behavior of light. In the area of electricity and magnetism, students should have some notion of a complete electrical circuit and some practical knowledge of magnets and their uses.

物理科學
物理科學包括物質和能量的相關概念，涵蓋了化學和物理等領域的主題。自小學四年級的學生已經開始的化學知識，框架的地方更多地強調對物理概念。
物理科學的主題領域如下：
•分類和物質的性質
•源和能源的影響
•部隊和議案
在分類和物質的性質方面，四年級的學生，預計將有一個在物質的物理狀態和變化開始理解從一種形式到另一種固體，液體和氣體。雖然預計不會對狀態變化的一般知識，學生應該知道，水可以存在於所有三種形式，可以從一種形式改變加熱或冷卻到另一個。
他們應該能夠比較或分類物體和材料的物理性質，化學性質的基礎上，，並與上述性質及其用途。期望學生能有一個開始形成的混合物和水的解決方案的實用知識。他們還預計，以確定在熟悉的材料，產生具有不同特性的其他材料的一些變化，但不知道如何將這些變化與相關的能源encompassheat，溫度，光，電的來源和影響的化學transformations.Concepts和磁性。學生應能確定共同的能源和能熱冷物體的熱對象有一些了解。他們對光線的理解，將評估通過確定共同的光源和光的行為有關的熟悉的物理現象。在電學和磁學領域中，學生應該有一個完整的電路的一些概念和磁鐵和他們使用的一些實用知識。

Students should have an intuitive grasp of the idea of forces as

they relate to movement, such as gravity acting on falling objects and

push/pull forces. They should also be able to compare the effects of

greater or lesser forces on an object. Knowledge about determining

the relative weight of objects using a balance may also be assessed.

Physical Science: Classification and Properties of Matter

1. Name three states of matter (solid, liquid, gas) and describe characteristic differences in shape and volume of each state; recognize that matter can be changed from one state to another by heating or cooling and describe these changes in terms of melting, freezing, boiling, evaporation, or condensation.

2. Compare and sort objects and materials on the basis of physical properties (e.g., weight/mass, volume, magnetic attraction); identify properties of metals and relate them to their use; identify properties and common uses of water in its solid, liquid, and gas state (e.g., coolant, solvent, heat source).

3. Describe examples of mixtures and explain how they can be separated; give examples of materials that dissolve in water and those that do not; explain ways of increasing how much and how quickly materials dissolve.

4. Identify observable changes in materials caused by decaying, burning, rusting, cooking that make new materials with different properties.

物理科學的分類和物質的性質

1、名物質的三種狀態（固體，液體，氣體）和描述在每個國家的形狀和體積的特點差異;承認，這個問題是可以改變的，通過加熱或冷卻從一個狀態到另一個融化，凍結，並說明這些變化，沸騰，蒸發，或凝結。

2、物體和材料的物理性質，化學性質（如重量/質量，體積，磁吸引力）的基礎上進行比較和排序，確定金屬的屬性，並與他們使用;識別屬性和共同使用的水，其固體，液體，和氣體狀態（例如，冷卻劑，溶劑，熱源）。

3、描述混合物的例子，並解釋它們如何可以分開;給予溶於水的材料，和那些不例子;說明增加多少，如何迅速材料溶解的方法。

4、確定觀察到的變化引起腐爛，燃燒，生鏽，烹調，使具有不同特性的新材料的材料。

Earth ScienceEarth science is concerned with the study of Earth and its place in the solar system. While there is no single picture of what constitutes an earth science curriculum that applies to all countries, the TIMSS 2011 Science Framework identifies the following topic areas that are universally considered to be important for students at the fourth grade to understand about the planet on which they live and its

place in the solar system:

•Earth’s structure, physical characteristics, and resources

•Earth’s processes, cycles, and history

•Earth in the solar system

Fourth-grade students are expected to have some general knowledge about the structure and physical characteristics of Earth. They should recognize that most of Earth’s surface is covered by water and be able to describe where fresh and salt water are found. At this level, assessment of students’ understandings of the atmosphere is limited to evidence for the existence of air and the presence of water in the air. Students are also expected to know common features of Earth’s landscape and have some understanding of the uses and conservation of Earth’s resources.

In the area of Earth’s processes, cycles, and history, fourthgrade students are expected to be able to describe some of Earth’s processes in terms of observable changes, including the movement of water, cloud formation, and changes in daily or seasonal weather conditions.

Assessing the understanding of Earth’s history is fairly limited at the fourth grade. However, students at this level should know thatfossils found in rocks are the remains of plants and animals that lived a long time ago and be able to make simple deductions about changes in Earth’s surface from the position and arrangement of

these fossils.

Fourth-grade students are expected to demonstrate some understandings about Earth’s place in the solar system based on observations of changes in Earth and sky. In particular, they should be familiar with the motions of Earth, and relate daily changes on Earth to its rotation on its axis and relationship to the Sun. They also should be able to recognize that the moon has different phases.

地球ScienceEarth科學與地球的研究和其在太陽系中的位置有關。雖然沒有什麼構成地球科學課程，適用於所有國家的單一圖片，2011年的TIMSS科學框架確定了以下主題領域普遍認為是重要的四年級學生了解地球上，他們生活和它在太陽系的地方：

•地球的結構，物理特性，和資源

•地球的過程，週期，和歷史

•地球在太陽系

四年級學生，預計將有一些關於地球的結構和物理特性的一般知識。他們應該認識到，大部分的地球表面被水覆蓋，並能描述食水及鹹水。在這個層面上，評估學生理解的氣氛是有限的空氣和水在空氣中存在的存在的證據。學生也知道地球的景觀共同的特點，並有一定的了解地球資源的使用和保護。
在地球的過程，週期，和歷史方面的中，fourthgrade學生都預計可以來描述觀察到的變化，包括水的運動，雲的形成，在天氣條件每天或者每個季節的變化方面的一些地球的過程。

在四年級，評估地球歷史的了解是相當有限的。然而，在這個級別的學生應該知道thatfossils岩石中發現的植物和動物生活在很久以前，能夠使地球表面的變化，從這些化石的位置和安排簡單的扣除的遺骸。

Earth Science: Earth’s Structure, Physical Characteristics, and Resources

1. Identify substances that make up Earth’s surface. Recognize that most of Earth’s surface is covered with water; describe where fresh or salt water are found; provide evidence for the existence of air; recognize common events such as cloud formation, dewdrops, evaporation of puddles, and drying of wet clothes, as evidence that air contains water.

2. Describe features of Earth’s landscape (e.g., mountains, plains, deserts, rivers, lakes, seas) and relate them to human use (e.g., farming, irrigation, land development); identify some of Earth’s resources that are used in everyday life (e.g., water, soil, wood, minerals, air); explain the importance of using these resources responsibly

地球科學：地球的結構，物理特性和資源
1。確定使地球表面的物質。認識到，地球表面的大部分是與水覆蓋;描述其中淡水或海水是發現;提供空氣的存在的證據;認識雲的形成，露珠，積水蒸發和乾燥的濕衣服等常見的事件，作為證據空氣中含有水。
2。說明地球的景觀（山區，平原，沙漠，河流，湖泊，海洋）的特點和與他們的人類使用（例如，耕作，灌溉，土地開發）;確定一些地球上的資源在日常生活中使用的（例如，水，土壤，木材，礦產，空氣）;解釋負責任地使用這些資源的重要性

Earth Science: Earth’s Processes, Cycles, and History

1. Describe the movement of water on Earth’s surface (e.g., flowing in rivers or streams from mountains to oceans or lakes); relate the formation of clouds and rain or snow to a change of state of water; describe changes in weather conditions from day to day or over the seasons in terms of temperature, precipitation (rain or snow), clouds, and wind.

2. Recognize that some remains (fossils) of animals and plants that lived on Earth a long time ago are found in rocks; make simple deductions about changes in Earth’s surface from the location of these remains (fossils).

Earth Science: Earth in the Solar System

1. Describe the solar system as a group of planets (including Earth) each revolving around the Sun; recognize that the moon revolves around Earth and looks different in different times of the month; identify the Sun as the source of heat and light for the solar system.

2. Relate daily patterns observed on Earth to Earth’s rotation on its axis and its relationship to the Sun (e.g., day and night, appearance of shadows).

地球科學：地球的過程，週期和歷史

1。描述水的運動在地球表面（例如，流入河流或從山區到海洋或湖泊流）;與形成雲層和雨水或雪水的狀態發生變化;描述從第一天的天氣條件的變化一天在氣溫，降水（雨或雪），雲，和風能方面季節。

2。認識到，一些生活在地球上的動物和植物的遺骸（化石）在很久以前是在岩石中發現，對地球表面的變化，從這些遺骸的位置（化石）簡單扣除。

地球科學：地球在太陽系

1。形容為一個組行星（包括地球）圍繞太陽的太陽系認識到，月球圍繞地球，並期待在本月不同時間的不同，確定為太陽的熱和光源為太陽能系統。

2。相關地球上觀察地球的自轉的軸和太陽之間的關係（例如，白天和晚上，外觀的陰影）的日常模式。。